The Human, The Orchid, and The Octopus by Jacques Cousteau

In Jacques Cousteau’s book The Human, The Orchid, and The Octopus, public risk is discussed on a broad based scale. As has already been noted, basic science discoveries almost always leads to applied science where decisions are made based on risk versus reward. What is now noted is a new branch in this complex web in the relationship between science and society – risk assessment. Admittedly, the scenario presented here is oversimplified, but will give the general idea. A scientist initiates the process of giving society the facts of something new via discovery, the second phase is where the basic discovery is used for some sort of application useful to society, but may contain unknown potential problems. Now a third part of the scenario comes into play. Since there may be both benefit and risk to society by using this newly applied scientific discovery there is now a need to assess the risk of actually using it. An example of this is nuclear power (which will be dealt with in more detail later). The basic science behind nuclear power was begun with the discovery of fission. Now fast-foreword to the application of this in building nuclear power reactors to produce energy. As with most scientific discoveries there is a downside to its utilization, in this case spent fuel; thus the need to assess or manage the risk. Risk assessment is part of all scientific endeavors, to assess potential negative byproducts like nuclear accidents, chemical spills, unproven pharmaceuticals, potential lethal virus exposure, etc. Scientific risk assessment is always part of the science-to-society process. Thorough analysis of potentially harmful outcomes are evaluated and defined by what science has defined as the field of risk assessment. If something can potentially go wrong this potential will have been analyzed, categorized, and quantified. This field of risk management was born of a good idea to keep science and technology on a path for the protection of society. However, Cousteau presents copious examples of how good intentions can lead to questionable results. He writes:
In legend, Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, purposely undermines his peoples’ sense of safety and security by tying a naked sword to a horsehair and suspending it above the head of Damocles. We sit beneath Damocles sword that our leaders seem to manufacture by chain production.” (pages 92-93)
Cousteau writes “The pure scientist discovers the universe. The applied scientist exploits existing scientific discoveries to create useable products.” (page 181) The difference is that one is an explorer and the other a prospector. At what point is the explorer, the pure scientist, responsible to foresee the future direction of the exploration and become aware of coming danger? The time-lag between discovery and application has shrunk dramatically since the time of Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes, etc. to Einstein, Bohr, and Teller, etc., and even more today. In addition, political influence has become so influential that Cousteau compares, for example, the military to puppeteers and the scientist, puppets. This take-over of science by the military is not totally new; however, it went to a new level during the development of the atomic bomb in World War II. A military-industrial-complex arose and forced science to work in secrecy. The military and industry essentially controlled science with funding. In 1963 the US government drastically reduced funding for basic research without direct military application, and since private funding was almost exclusively used for applied research, the nature of science especially in the U. S. changed. (page 192). There is no doubt that the results of science have been greatly beneficial as well as harmful and continued benefits will rest on the ability of many non-scientists in society to understand and incorporate complex issues by non-scientists who make the decisions which affect society. Just as science attempts not only to know, but to control nature, society attempts to control science. The paramount issue is that critical thinking by society can only come about by a scientific literate one.